近年来,我国畜禽养殖发展迅速,规模化比例显著提高,引发的环境污染问题也日益突出[1]。畜禽粪尿是畜禽养殖中主要副产物,也是主要的农业废弃物之一[2],粪尿中含有一定量的有机质和氮、磷、钾以及其他植物生长所需的营养元素,是植物重要的养分资源[3],但粪尿中的氮、磷也是导致环境污染的重要因素[4]。第一次全国污染源普查数据表明,化学需氧量 (COD)、总氮排放量、总磷排放量3项主要污染物指标,农业源污染物排放占全国排放总量的比重分别为43.7%、57.2%和67.4%,其中畜禽粪便中COD、总氮、总磷的产生量分别为1268、106和16万t,分别占农业污染源产生量的96%、38%、65%[5]。近年的污染源普查动态更新数据显示,畜禽粪尿污染物产生量在全国污染物总产生量中的占比有所上升[6]。畜禽粪便污染物减排已不容小觑,攸关国家节能减排目标的实现,而畜禽粪尿的任意排放既造成了养分资源的巨大浪费,又导致了严重的环境污染。
目前由于长期单施和过量施用化学肥料已造成土壤有机质含量降低、土壤结构退化[7]、肥料利用率下降[8]、土壤微生物多样性和生物活性降低[9],进而引起土壤肥力和生产力下降[10]。研究表明,化肥配施有机肥是保持土壤生产力和减少化肥施用的一种传统而有效的方法,可以达到节约成本和增加养分有效性的双重作用[11],而且在调控健康土壤微生物区系和防治土传病害方面同样有着突出作用[12],配施有机肥可减缓土传病害[13],进而提高土壤可持续利用程度[14]。洪瑜等[15]研究表明配施有机肥可降低灌淤土容重,显著提升土壤有机质和养分含量,对促进玉米产量和氮肥利用率具有积极作用。李慧等[16]利用东北黑土长期定位试验研究认为,有机肥料和化肥对玉米均具有显著的增产效果,有机肥化肥配施可降低玉米产量的变异系数和提高可持续性指数,从而保证玉米的持续稳产高产。郑亮等[17]研究表明,猪粪与化肥合理配施可以维持水稻产量和土壤无机氮水平,同时可提高土壤微生物生物量碳和微生物生物量氮,改善土壤肥力。从农业废弃物高效利用和维护农田地力的角度出发,有机无机配施将是我国今后肥料施用发展的必然趋势[18]。
我国畜禽粪尿资源丰富,掌握我国畜禽粪尿养分资源数量、分布及其利用状况,制订合理利用策略是解决畜牧业环境污染和提高肥料利用率的重要途径。现有的研究中关于畜禽粪尿对耕地、水存在的潜在污染风险,大多是通过单位面积耕地的粪尿负荷来分析[6, 19–25],而从国家尺度上分析畜禽粪尿养分资源数量对化肥减施影响的研究很少。因此,本文利用2016年国家统计数据和已发表资料的统计,探讨和分析了中国畜禽粪尿数量及其养分资源总量和分布情况,以期为中国畜禽粪尿资源的高效利用提供理论依据。
1 研究方法与数据来源 1.1 研究对象与区域划分主要研究对象为中国31个省市,不包括香港、澳门、台湾和南海群岛。将中国省市分为六大农区[26],分别为东北地区,包括黑龙江、吉林和辽宁 3 省;华北地区,北京、天津、河北、河南、山东、山西6省 (市);长江中下游地区,上海、江苏、浙江、安徽、湖北、湖南、江西 7 省 (市);西北地区,内蒙古、陕西、宁夏、甘肃、青海、新疆 6 省 (自治区);西南地区,重庆、四川、贵州、云南、西藏 5 省 (市、自治区);东南地区,福建、广东、广西、海南 4 省 (自治区)。研究的畜禽种类包括役用牛、肉牛、奶牛、羊 (山羊和绵羊)、马、驴、骡、猪 (育肥猪和母猪)、兔和家禽。主要农作物为水稻、小麦、玉米、大豆、马铃薯、花生、油菜和棉花。
1.2 畜禽粪便产生总量及其养分量估算方法中国历史上对畜禽粪尿数量没有专门的统计,本文参考国际上比较通用的和大多数研究所采用的方法,即通过畜禽养殖数量、畜禽饲养周期与粪尿排泄系数的关系得到,其计算公式如下:
$\begin{array}{l}{W_i} = \mathop \sum \limits_{j = 1}^{11} {N_{ij}} \times {T_j} \times {R_j}\\W_{\rm N}\left( {\rm N} \right) = {W_j} \times {N_j}\\W_{\rm P}\left( {{{\rm{P}}_2}{{\rm{O}}_5}} \right) = {W_j} \times {P_j}\\W_{\rm K}\left( {{{\rm{K}}_2}{\rm{O}}} \right) = {W_j} \times {K_j}\end{array}$ |
式中:Wi—第i个省 (市、自治区) 年粪 (尿) 产生量;Nij—第i个省 (市、自治区) 的第j类动物饲养量;Tj—第j类动物饲养期;Rj—第j类动物排泄系数;WN—畜禽粪 (尿) 中氮素 (N) 养分资源量;Wj—第j类动物年粪 (尿) 产生量;Nj—第j类动物粪 (尿) 中氮素养分含量;WP—畜禽粪 (尿) 中磷素 (P2O5) 养分资源量;Pj—第j类动物粪 (尿) 中磷素养分含量;WK—畜禽粪 (尿) 中钾素 (K2O) 养分资源量;Kj—第j类动物粪 (尿) 中钾素养分含量。i = 1, 2, 3, …, 31;j = 1, 2, 3, …, 11。本文收集国内公开发表的文章数据[1, 5, 27–36],确定各种畜禽粪尿的排泄系数,畜禽粪尿排泄系数和养分含量见表1。
畜禽粪尿不同回田比例化学养分替代率计算公式如下:
${\rm{N}}crop = {{P}} \times Yk \times {\rm{W}}k/\left( {\mathop \sum \limits_{n = 1}^8 Ckn \times Skn} \right)$ |
式中:Ncrop—畜禽粪尿回田化学N养分替代率;P—畜禽粪尿回田比例;Yk—第k地区畜禽粪尿收集系数;Wk—第k地区畜禽粪尿养分含量;Ckn—第k地区第n类作物最佳施肥量;Skn—第k地区第n类作物种植面积。n = 1, 2, 3, …, 8;k代表六大农区。每个地区P、K的养分替代率计算公式同上N养分替代率计算公式。内蒙古、新疆、青海和西藏四大牧区的畜禽粪尿养分不包括在本次计算内,这些区域的畜禽粪尿大多数直接排泄到环境中。
1.3 数据来源本文涉及的2015年主要农作物产量和种植面积均来自于《中国统计年鉴 2016》 、《中国农业年鉴 2016》和《 中国农村统计年鉴 2016》。畜禽出栏量和存栏量主要来源于《中国统计年鉴 2016》 、《中国农业年鉴 2016》和《中国畜牧兽医年鉴 2016》,其中畜禽养殖量由畜禽的平均饲养周期结合统计数据综合决定。一般饲养周期小于1年的畜禽,以当年出栏量作为养殖数量,存栏量不予考虑,饲养周期按平均饲养天数计算;平均饲养周期大于1年的畜禽,以当年末存栏量作为养殖数量,饲养周期按365天计算。畜禽饲养周期见表1。
本研究估算2015年中国畜禽粪尿数量为31.6 × 108t (表2),其粪尿数量以猪最大,其次为肉牛和奶牛,分别占总量的36.8%、24.8%和9.9%,其它畜禽粪尿数量占28.6%。从畜禽粪尿养分资源量看,养分资源总量为3832.9万t,其中N、P2O5和K2O养分资源量分别为1478.0、901.0和1453.9万t,粪尿总养分量以猪最大,其次为肉牛和羊,分别占总量的28.2%、22.8%和15.0%,家禽第四,其养分量占14.0%,其它畜禽粪尿总养分量占20.0%。粪尿单质养分资源量以猪的氮和磷养分数量最高,分别占单质养分总量的28.0% (N) 和39.3% (P2O5),钾养分数量以肉牛最高,占单质养分总量的28.7% (K2O)。
从不同地区畜禽粪尿数量及其养分资源分布来看,2015年中国31个省市的粪尿数量及其养分资源分布各地区差异较大 (表3),西南和华北地区粪尿数量和养分资源量最多,粪尿数量分别占全国总量的22.3%和21.5%,养分资源量分别占全国总量的21.3%和21.9%。2015年畜禽粪尿数量和粪尿养分总量前3个省份分别是四川、河南和山东,其畜禽粪尿数量分别占粪尿总量的8.9%、8.2%和6.5%,粪尿养分总量占养分资源总量的8.5%、8.0%和7.1%。从各省的畜禽粪尿数量看,大于2亿t的省 (市) 有3个,1亿~2亿t的省 (市) 有11个,0.5~1亿t的省 (市) 有8个,0.1~0.5亿t的省 (市) 有7个,低于0.1亿t的省 (市) 仅有2个。
不同畜禽种类粪尿中氮素养分去向参考刘晓利等[37]的研究,平均按50%的粪尿氮素养分还田利用,15 %的氮素养分挥发损失, 22 %的氮素养分进入水体污染环境,13%的氮素养分堆置废弃。从不同畜禽种类粪尿中氮素养分去向来看 (表4),2015年中国仅有613.7万t氮回田利用,221.7万t氮挥发损失,325.2万t氮素进入水体污染环境,317.4万t氮堆置废弃,其中畜禽粪尿氮素损失中以猪的最大,其次为肉牛。从不同区域来看畜禽粪尿中氮素养分去向 (表5),发现华北和西南地区氮素回田量最大,分别为161.6万t和133.9万t,西北地区氮素回田量最小,仅为40.4万t。
2015年中国畜禽粪尿中磷和钾素回田量分别为389.6万t和501.4万t,仅占其养分总量的43.2% (P2O5) 和34.5% (K2O),进入环境的磷和钾素分别为511.3和952.5万t (表6)。中国不同畜禽种类粪尿中磷的还田量以猪的最高,回田量为224.9万t,家禽次之,为80.3万t,进入环境的磷素同样以猪和家禽的粪尿磷为主,分别为129.1万t和101.0万t;钾的回田量最高的为猪,回田量为199.4万t,其次为肉牛,为100.7万t,进入环境的钾素以肉牛和羊的粪尿钾为最高,分别为316.9万t和161.2万t。不同区域畜禽粪尿磷和钾的去向中,磷和钾还田量最高的均为华北区,分别为99.1万t和127.5万t,其中长江中下游地区磷的回田量与华北地区相近,磷和钾进入环境中数量最高的均为西北地区,分别为117.4万t和252.5万t (表7)。
畜禽粪尿是畜禽养殖中重要的副产物,同时也是环境污染物,而粪尿作为有机养分回田是减少化学肥料施用、培肥土壤的有效途径。根据《中国统计年鉴2016》各区域不同作物种植面积和各区域不同作物最佳施用量 (表8),可计算得到各区域的养分需求量。由表9可以看出,将畜禽粪尿全量还田N、P2O5、K2O输入量分别为811.8万t (已减去15 %的氮素养分挥发损失[37])、856.6万t和849.5万t。那么不同地区化肥氮的减施率为15.2%~91.1%,平均为45.3%;化肥磷的减施率为59.0%~220.2%,平均为106.8%;化肥钾的减施率为39.5%~115.6%,平均为76.5%。分析不同地区畜禽粪尿全量回田,发现N、P2O5和K2O减施量最高的均为华北地区,减施量分别为218.7万t、197.1万t和193.3万t,而N和P2O5减施率最高的为东南地区,K2O减施率最高的为西北地区。
畜禽粪尿是重要的有机肥,如果能把养殖场畜禽粪尿充分还田和有效利用起来,不但解决了养殖场污染问题,还催生了新的有机农业产业,生产高附加值的农产品。将畜禽粪尿作为农业产业链中的一个重要环节,以实现物质的多重循环和多次转化利用,从而提高畜禽粪尿的资源利用率以及整体效益[38]。
中国畜禽粪尿的产生量已超过工业固体废弃物,成为环境污染的主要来源,至2020年,畜禽粪尿产生量将以平均每年2.32%的速度增加[33]。畜禽粪尿污染物减排已不容小觑,攸关国家节能减排目标的实现,而了解畜禽粪尿年产生量是其充分合理利用的基础。已有研究对中国各年份畜禽粪尿量及其各类污染物排放量进行了估算,而结果存在一定的偏差。许俊香等[39]研究认为中国2002年粪便量为33亿t;高定等[150]研究认为2002年是27.5亿t;王方浩等[28]认为2003年是31.9亿t;田宜水等[32]估算2009年我国规模化养殖畜禽粪便排放量8.37 × 108t;贾伟[151]估算2009我国畜禽粪便干重6.96亿t;张田等[34]估算 2009年中国畜禽粪便总量达 32.64亿t;也有研究表明2009年粪便量为21.83亿t[33]和39.92亿t[152],2010年22.35亿t[22],2011年是26.89亿t[153];朱建春等[20]认为2002年是23.35亿t,2003年是24.45亿t,2009年是24.22亿t,2010年是24.45亿t,2011年是25.45亿t;黎运红等[154]研究认为2013年我国主要畜禽粪便干重达6.23亿t。而本研究收集国内公开发表的文章,确定各种畜禽粪尿的排泄系数,估算2015年畜禽粪尿量为31.584亿t。结果的差异可能由于产排污系数选取、饲养周期和畜禽数量估算等因素的差别[21, 155]。虽然这些研究结果存在较大差异,但均证明了中国养殖业的畜禽粪尿产生量巨大,若需准确系统地获得可比性较强的估算结果,应对禽粪便的估算方法科学地进行统一。
畜禽粪尿会对环境造成很大影响,但同时又是一种宝贵的资源,畜禽粪尿中含有大量的有机物和氮、磷等营养元素,对其进行肥料化、能源化和饲料化等一系列资源化利用,在促进农业的可持续发展和维护生态平衡方面起到重要作用[31]。贾伟等[151]估算2009年畜禽粪尿氮、磷、钾养分资源数量分别为1290万t、310万t、1030万t。耿维等[22]估算2010 年畜禽粪便可提供总氮1900万t,占当年氮肥消费量的 79%;提供总磷400万t,占当年磷肥消费量的50%。黎运红等[154]研究认为2013年我国畜禽粪便资源中理论上含有氮养分 1155.42万t、磷养分 311.57万t、钾养分774.06万t,氮、磷、钾分别相当于我国 2013年农业氮、磷、钾肥施用量的 48.26%、37.51%、123.38%。本研究估算2015年我国畜禽粪尿资源中理论上含有氮、磷、钾养分分别为1478.0、901.0和1453.9万t。因此加强畜禽粪尿资源的利用不但可以降低环境污染,同时能够实现农田化肥减施,提高畜禽粪尿的资源利用率。
3.2 畜禽粪尿还田潜力研究畜禽粪尿含有的氮磷钾养分资源如果能够合理返还农田,将大量减少化学肥料施用[156]。本研究发现2015年,中国畜禽粪尿中氮素养分为1478.0万t,相当于3213.0万t尿素中的氮含量,约为2015年消费的氮肥中氮素养分的62.6%,粪尿全量还田理论上氮、磷、钾施用量平均可以减少37.3%、87.6%和65.9%。路国彬等[157]利用模型估算了畜禽粪肥替代化肥潜力,结果表明2014年畜禽粪肥可替代氮肥、磷肥、钾肥的潜力分别为1186.78万t、806.41万t和1169.25万t,分别占当年实际化肥施用量的38.30%、52.00%和86.77%;我国不同地区畜禽粪肥可替代化肥潜力差异较大,河南、四川、山东、湖南和湖北畜禽粪肥替代化肥潜力排在前五位;其研究的畜禽种类为猪、牛和家禽,而不包含其它畜禽。赵俊伟等[27]在确定畜禽粪便年排放量和农田所需养分量估算方法的基础上,根据2011—2014年青岛市畜禽养殖量和农作物产量数据,从肥料化利用角度分析畜禽粪便资源化利用潜力,结果发现如果畜禽粪便能够完全实现肥料化利用,则畜禽粪便中养分的化肥替代率达60%以上。宇万太等[158]利用中长期定位试验研究了有机肥料 (猪圈肥) 的养分利用率,结果发现猪圈肥中氮和磷的5年平均表观利用率分别为61%和39%,且有随施肥年限的延长而增长的趋势,表明有机肥中养分具有较强的残效迭加作用。孙聪姝等[159]利用长期定位试验研究同样认为有机肥具有明显的后效性。因此,在畜禽粪肥长期还田下不仅需要考虑当季作物对其养分的吸收,还需考虑畜禽粪肥养分的后效问题,而目前有关不同种类畜禽粪肥在不同土壤中养分有效性及其后效的研究较少。
相关研究表明[160],若用有机肥替代化肥,全球变暖潜力、富营养化潜力和环境酸化潜力将分别降低17.5%、52.9%和62.6%。研究[161-162]表明新鲜的猪粪中不仅含有作物生长所需的矿质营养元素,而且含有挥发性脂肪酸,能有效抑制和消除植物土传病害。杨娟等[163]研究表明,猪粪50%、100%替代化肥分别比单施化肥水稻增产15.87%、9.14%。侯苗苗等[164]研究认为在鴥土小麦/玉米轮作体系中牛粪有机氮替代化肥氮75%最好,可以保证作物产量、实现N2O减排。赵军等[165]研究认为,在稻麦轮作体系中猪粪有机无机复合肥替代70%常规化肥施用能有效提高作物产量,同时是一种具有培育高产土壤微生物区系潜力的施肥措施。李江涛等[166]认为,长期施用畜禽粪尿能够通过增加土壤活性有机碳含量和改善土壤理化性质来改善土壤生物化学质量。雷成等[167]研究了畜禽粪尿的不同处理途径,认为直接施入农田是最为简单的做法。杨世琦等[24]研究认为,我国农田消纳畜禽粪尿的潜力较大,通过畜禽粪尿还田利用能够有效地解决粪尿污染问题。
畜禽粪肥从养殖场到农田的转移存在一定局限性[24]。畜禽粪尿的特点决定了其无法进行大范围、跨地区的移动,所以在当前经济可行的技术条件下,耕地消纳仍是较为经济可行的畜禽粪肥处理手段[168]。然而在一定时期内,单位耕地面积对畜禽粪尿的消纳容量有限,区域畜禽养殖业的发展应该符合该地区的土壤环境承载力,其饲养密度应不超过该地区耕地资源的最大承载能力[169]。李祖章等[170]研究表明,每年每公顷稻田施用猪粪量应控制在15 t以内,每公顷农田承载母猪粪便能力为15头、果园为30头,承载存栏育肥猪粪便能力为45头。陆善玲等[171]对上海郊区研究表明,在每公顷施225 kg纯氮的基础上,水稻田的猪粪肥适宜施用量为15~35 t/hm2,临界施用量为45 t/hm2。土壤粪便的年施用量中磷含量不能超过35 kg/hm2 (P2O5 80 kg/hm2),否则会引起磷的淋洗造成环境污染[172]。
4 结论目前中国畜禽粪尿数量及其养分资源量依然巨大,2015年中国畜禽粪尿数量31.584亿t,其中氮 (N)、磷 (P2O5)、钾 (K2O) 养分资源总量分别达到1478.0万t、901.0万t和1453.9万t,畜禽粪尿回田是实现化肥减施增效的有效措施,具有广阔的利用空间。畜禽粪尿资源数量以猪、肉牛和奶牛占据主要部分,其总养分量以猪、肉牛和羊最大,同时西南和华北地区粪尿数量和养分资源量最多。改善畜禽粪尿处理、运输和还田方式,提高畜禽粪尿养分资源利用率仍是未来一段时间急需解决的问题,畜禽粪尿资源充分利用同样是实现化肥施用零增长行动和保障国家粮食安全的重要措施。
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